Synopsis
● To investigate whether nonclinical individuals have persecutory thoughts in virtual reality;
● The study was conducted in a restaurant in a small, affluent town in Leicestershire, UK.
● The independent variable was the type of background music played in the restaurant: classical music, pop music, or no music.
●The dependent variables were the mean spend per person for starters, main courses, desserts, coffee, bar drinks, wine, overall drinks bill, overall food bill, and total spend.
●The results showed that classical music significantly increased the mean spend per person for starters, coffee, total spend on food, and overall spend.
●There were no significant differences in spending for desserts, drinks from the bar, wine, main courses, or total spend on drinks.
● The total mean spend per person was £32.51 for classical music, £29.46 for pop music, and £29.73 for no music.
● The researchers concluded that classical music can increase customer spending, mainly on starters and coffee
Methodological Evaluation
Sampling
Sample Characteristics
Strengths
1. The study had a large number of participants.
● It had a sample size of 393 customers, which is a relatively large sample size.
● This means that the results of the study are more likely to be accurate and reliable, as they are based on a large number of participants.
2. The study had a representative sample.
● The sample was representative of the population of interest, which was customers in an upscale restaurant in Leicestershire, UK.
● This means that the results of the study are more likely to be generalizable to other customers in similar restaurants.
Weaknesses
1. The sample of customers who ate in the restaurant during the study is not representative of the population of all customers who might visit a restaurant.
The study took place in a small, affluent town in Leicestershire, UK, where the menu was quite expensive.
This means that the findings may not apply to less affluent restaurants or restaurants in different types of locations.
2. Another weakness is that the study only spanned three weeks.
This limited time frame might not capture the full range of customer behavior over an extended period.
For example, people’s responses to classical music may change over time, and a longer study would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how background music influences consumer behavior.
Sampling Technique
● The North et al. (2003) study supports opportunity sampling.
● It involved observing and collecting data from the 393 customers who naturally dined in the upscale restaurant in Leicestershire, UK restaurant during February and March 2002.
Strengths
1. It captured a realistic sample.
● 393 customers who ate in the restaurant between February and March 2002 were recruited for the study.
● This sample represents real-world restaurant-goers, enhancing the ecological validity of the findings.
2. Another strength is that the researchers managed to obtain a large number of participants.
● They had a sample size of 393 customers, which is a relatively large sample size.
● This means that the results of the study are more likely to be accurate and reliable, as they are based on a large number of participants.
Weaknesses
1. One weakness is the lack of representativeness in the North et al. (2003) study.
● The sample consisted of 393 customers from a single restaurant in a small, affluent town in Leicestershire, UK.
● This means that the findings may not apply to less affluent restaurants or restaurants in different types of locations.
2. Another weakness is potential researcher bias in sample selection.
● The choice of a single restaurant, which served expensive à la carte food, could introduce bias because it may not be representative of typical dining establishments.
● It is possible that the selection was influenced by convenience or personal preferences, introducing bias into the study.
Operationalization of Variables
Independent Variable
Levels of the Independent Variable
- Classical Music;
- Pop Music;
- No Music
Operationalized Independent Variable
- Specific genre of music played in the restaurant during the study.
Operationalized Levels of the Independent Variable
- Classical Music – Background music consisting of classical compositions by renowned classical artists, including pieces by Vivaldi, Handel, and Strauss
- Pop Music – Background music featuring popular music tracks from artists like Britney Spears, Culture Club, and Ricky Martin.
- No Music – The absence of any background music during the dining experience, creating a silent environment in the restaurant.
The operationalization was well-defined, increasing validity
- Classical music included pieces by Vivaldi, Handel, and Strauss, while pop music included tracks by Britney Spears, Culture Club, and Ricky Martin.
- This clear distinction ensured that the independent variable was clearly distinguishable during the experiment.
2. A counterbalanced order of music styles was presented, increasing validity.
- The order of music styles varied from week to week.
- Counterbalancing the order minimized the potential influence of external factors that might vary with time, such as customer preferences or seasonal effects
1. It lacked variation in music genres, limiting scope of findings.
- The study only compared classical music to pop music and a control condition of no music, which limited the range of musical genres considered.
- This limited scope might not have captured the full range of how different types of music can affect consumer behavior.
2. It did not account for individual music preferences, making the independent variable reductionist.
- The research assumed that all customers have the same response to classical or pop music, without considering individual musical tastes.
This oversimplification overlooked the possibility that some customers might have strong preferences for one genre over the other, which could significantly influence their spending behavior.
Dependent Variable
- The (opsrationalized) dependent variables in the North et al. (2003) study were:
- Mean spend per person for starters;
- Mean spend per person for main courses;
- Mean spend per person for desserts;
- Mean spend per person for coffee;
- Mean spend per person for bar drinks;
- Mean spend per person for wine;
- Mean spend per person for the overall drinks bill;
- Mean spend per person for the overall food bill;
- Mean total spend per person
Strengths
1. The operationalization of the dependent variable was precise, allowing for valid assessment.
- It measured various aspects of spending, including starters, coffee, total food spend, and overall spend, with specific numerical values, that is, mean spend per person.
2. The study operationalized multiple dependent variables, increasing the scope of findings.
- This provided a comprehensive view of how music influences customer behavior. It covers various categories like starters, coffee, and overall food spend, enabling a thorough analysis of consumer responses to different types of music.
Examples of Controls
1. The researchers included a control condition with no music
- This control was maintained to establish a baseline for comparison, allowing the researchers to assess the impact of different types of music on customer spending.
2. The researchers used an independent measures design.
- This design choice ensured that participants’ experiences were not influenced by exposure to multiple music types, reducing potential confounding variables.
3. The researchers maintained a consistent volume of music.
- Maintaining consistent volume levels helped ensure that variations in customer spending were due to the music genre and not differences in music volume.
4. The researchers counterbalanced the order of music styles. That is, the order of music styles varied from week to week.
- Counterbalancing the order minimized the potential influence of external factors that might vary with time, such as customer preferences or seasonal effects.
5. The researchers recorded the total time customers spent in the restaurant.
- Tracking the time spent allowed the researchers to assess whether the type of music influenced the length of customer stays, which could, in turn, impact spending.
Research Method (Correlational Study)
Justification
- The study conducted was a field experiment.
- It took place in a real-world setting, specifically in a restaurant in Leicestershire, UK, rather than a controlled laboratory environment.
- This naturalistic context allowed the researchers to observe and manipulate the independent variable (type of music) within the restaurant’s actual operational conditions, making it a field experiment.
1. It increased ecological validity.
- The experiment took place in an actual restaurant in a small, affluent town in the UK, with a menu that offered individual items and was quite expensive.
- This setting closely resembled a typical dining experience.
2. It increased the ease of obtaining a sample, increasing practical viability.
- The researchers collected data from 393 customers who ate in the restaurant over a specific period, between February and March 2002.
- The sample size was large, and none of the customers were aware they were participating in a study, reducing demand characteristics.
1. The study lacked control over various factors that could have influenced customer behavior beyond the background music, reducing validity.
- For example, situational variables like lighting, menu, and temperature were kept constant, but other variables such as the quality of service, the day of the week, or special promotions were not controlled.
- This lack of control makes it challenging to attribute the changes in customer spending solely to the type of music played.
2. North et al. did not employ random selection of participants, reducing generalizability.
- The sample consisted of 393 customers who ate at the restaurant between February and March 2002.
- If, for example, the researchers inadvertently selected more affluent or music-sensitive individuals, it could lead to an overestimation of the effect of classical music on customer spending.
Ethical Evaluation
- Informed Consent: The study did not explicitly mention obtaining informed consent from the 393 customers who dined in the restaurant.
- Since none of the participants were aware they were part of a study, it lacked informed consent as the customers were not informed about the research and did not provide their consent.
- Right to Withdraw: The study did not mention whether the participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any point.
- Since the customers were not aware of their participation, they were not given the opportunity to exercise their right to withdraw.
- Lack of Deception: The study did not involve any deception other than hiding its purpose.
- The customers were not misled or given false information about the purpose of the study, and they dined naturally without any hidden agendas.
- Confidentiality: The study did not provide details about how it ensured the confidentiality of the participants’ data.
- Since it collected data without the customers’ knowledge, there is a lack of information on whether their personal spending habits and dining preferences were protected and kept anonymous, raising concerns about the handling of sensitive customer information.
- Privacy: Privacy concerns are evident in this study as it collected data from unsuspecting customers without their knowledge or consent.
- 1They were not given the opportunity to decide whether they wanted to participate in a study that involved tracking their dining behavior.
- Debriefing: The study did not mention any debriefing process for the participants since they were unaware of their participation.
- Debriefing could have been important to inform participants about the study and its objectives after their dining experience.
- Lack of Physical Harm: The study did not pose any physical harm to the participants.
- It involved playing music in a restaurant setting, which is generally harmless.
- Lack of Psychological Harm: The study did not mention any psychological harm inflicted on the participants.
It focused on the impact of music on customer spending, which is not expected to cause psychological harm.
Issues and Debates
Individual and Situational Explanations
The study provides a strong situational explanation for the impact of music on consumer behavior.The research found that classical music significantly increased the mean spend per person for starters, coffee, total spend on food, and overall spend. This indicates that the situational factor of playing classical music in the restaurant had a direct influence on customer spending.
1. The situational explanation reduces individual blame on customers for their spending behavior.
- In the study, customers were not aware they were part of an experiment, and the restaurant did not collect data on their musical preferences.
- This lack of individual data supports the idea that the situational factor of music was the driving force behind increased spending.
2. The situational explanation offers a practical approach to changing consumer behavior.
- Since the study identifies that changing the background music to classical can increase customer spending, it provides a straightforward strategy for restaurants and businesses to increase customer spending.
- Weaknesses of Individual Explanation
1. The situational explanation reduces individual blame on customers for their spending behavior.
- In the study, customers were not aware they were part of an experiment, and the restaurant did not collect data on their musical preferences.
- This lack of individual data supports the idea that the situational factor of music was the driving force behind increased spending.
2. The situational explanation offers a practical approach to changing consumer behavior.
- Since the study identifies that changing the background music to classical can increase customer spending, it provides a straightforward strategy for restaurants and businesses to increase customer spending.
Reductionism versus Holism
- The study supports a reductionist explanation because it isolates the influence of background music (classical vs. pop vs. no music) as the independent variable, simplifying the factors that could affect customer spending.
- This reductionist approach is evident as the study solely focuses on the impact of music type on spending while keeping situational variables like lighting and menu constant.
Strengths
1. The reductionist explanation offers a practical approach to changing consumer behavior.
- Since the study identifies that changing the background music to classical can increase customer spending, it provides a straightforward strategy for restaurants and businesses to increase customer spending.
2. It offers a straightforward and easily replicable framework for future research in this field.
- The methodology used in this study, involving playing different types of music in a restaurant setting and measuring customer spending, can be easily replicated in other contexts or with variations.
- This simplicity in design allows researchers to investigate the impact of background music on consumer behavior in various settings, like malls, retail stores, etc. making it an ideal foundation for further studies..
- Weaknesses of Nomothetic Approach
1. The study’s focus on the impact of classical music on customer spending ignores other potential influences on spending.
- This includes personal preferences, demographics, and social factors.
- The quality of service, the menu presentation, or the restaurant’s ambiance, could have also influence spending behavior in the restaurant.
2. The study’s findings may not be generalizable to everyone.
- The study only included 393 customers from one particular restaurant during a short time frame.
This sample may not represent the diverse range of consumers found in different locations and types of restaurants.
Determinism versus Free Will
Justification
- The study supports a deterministic explanation.
- It demonstrated that the type of background music (classical or pop), had a significant influence on customer spending.
- Classical music significantly increased the mean spend per person for starters, coffee, total food spend, and overall spend, regardless of individual preferences or intentions.
Strengths
1. The deterministic explanation offers an easy controllable approach to changing consumer behavior.
- Since the study identifies that changing the background music to classical can increase customer spending, it provides a straightforward strategy for restaurants and businesses to increase customer spending.
2. The deterministic explanation reduces individual blame on customers for their spending behavior.
- In the study, customers were not aware they were part of an experiment, and the restaurant did not collect data on their musical preferences.
- This lack of free-will data supports the idea that the deterministic factor of music was the driving force behind increased spending.
Weaknesses
1. The deterministic explanation does not encourage personal responsibility in explaining spending behavior.
- It focuses on external factors like classical music’s influence, but doesn’t consider personal responsibility in managing one’s spending habits.
- For instance, an individual’s budgeting skills, and self-control also play a significant role in their spending behavior, which this study doesn’t address.
2. This study’s deterministic explanation overlooks the influence of free-will choices, making it reductionist.
- It assumes that playing classical music directly causes higher customer spending.
- For example, the study doesn’t take into account that some diners might have a personal preference for classical music, which could have influenced their willingness to spend more.
Generalizability of Findings
Strengths
1. It captured a realistic sample.
- 393 customers who ate in the restaurant between February and March 2002 were recruited for the study.
- This sample represents real-world restaurant-goers, enhancing the ecological validity of the findings.
2. Another strength is that the researchers managed to obtain a large number of participants.
- They had a sample size of 393 customers, which is a relatively large sample size.
- This means that the results of the study are more likely to be accurate and reliable, as they are based on a large number of participants.
Weaknesses
1. One weakness is the lack of representativeness of the sample in the North et al. (2003) study.
- The sample consisted of 393 customers from a single restaurant in a small, affluent town in Leicestershire, UK.
- This means that the findings may not apply to less affluent restaurants or restaurants in different types of locations.
Another weakness is potential researcher bias in sample selection.
- The choice of a single restaurant, which served expensive à la carte food, could introduce bias because it may not be representative of typical dining establishments.
- It is possible that the selection was influenced by convenience or personal preferences, introducing bias into the study.
Validity
Strengths
1. A counterbalanced order of music styles was presented, increasing validity.
- The order of music styles varied from week to week.
- Counterbalancing the order minimized the potential influence of external factors that might vary with time, such as customer preferences or seasonal effects
2. The use of an independent groups design in the study minimised order effects, increasing validity.
- Since each table of diners experienced only one type of music or no music, there was no chance for participants to be influenced by the order in which they heard classical or pop music.
- This design helped ensure that the differences in spending were due to the music type itself rather than any order-related biases.
Weaknesses
1. The study lacked control over various factors that could have influenced customer behavior beyond the background music, reducing validity.
- For example, situational variables like lighting, menu, and temperature were kept constant, but other variables such as the quality of service, the day of the week, or special promotions were not controlled.
- This lack of control makes it challenging to attribute the changes in customer spending solely to the type of music played.
2. It didn’t control for individual differences between participants, reducing validity.
- Each participant experienced only one type of music or no music, which means that there could have been inherent differences between the groups that influenced their spending behavior.
- For example, some participants might have had higher incomes or different spending habits, which could have skewed the results.
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